Underlying the Chinese cultural
heritage and also Chinese
Martial Arts, such as Tai
Chi chuan, philosophical background,
are about a dozen schools
of thought dating from as
early as the 7th century B.C.,
when Guan Zhong (?-645 B.C.)
and his ideas (cf. The Book
of Guan Zi) emerged in relation
to the later development of
the Legalist School (Fa Jia).[1]
The most important of these
schools are known as Confucianism
and Daoism (Taoism) in terms
of their historical continuity
and influence. The founder
of Confucianism is naturally
identified with Confucius,
as the latinized name for
Kong Fu Zi or Kong Zi (551-479
B.C.). As regards Daoism,
Lao Zi (Lao Tzu) is mostly
recognized as its founder
despite the fact that the
details of his life and work
remain controversial. Here
we will give a brief account
of Lao Zi and his doctrine
of the Dao.
I. Lao Zi's Life and
Work
Almost all the different opinions
about Lao Zi's life and work
appear to focus on the dispute
as to whether Confucius was
preceded by Lao Zi or vice
versa. They can thus be generalized
into two main tendencies as
follows: One holds that Lao
Zi was an older contemporary
of Confucius, who lived in
the latter part of the Spring
and Autumn Period (770-476
B.C.) and his doctrines are
presented in his book titled
the Dao De Jing (i.e. The
Book of Lao Zi); the other
argues that Lao Zi was born
after Confucius and lived
during the Warring States
Period (475-221 B.C.), as
there are indications in the
Dao De Jing that was compiled
in that era.
According to the biography
of Lao Zi as given by Sima
Qian (c. 145-86 B.C.) in his
Historical Record,[2] "Lao
Zi was a native of Qurenli
Village, in Lixiang community,
Kuxian district, in the State
of Chu.[3] His family name
was Li, his given name Er
and style Dan. He once served
as the head of the national
library during the Eastern
Zhou Dynasty (770-256 B.C.).
Confucius visited the capital
of the dynasty (modern Luoyang
City in Henan Province), where
he asked Lao Zi about the
rites...." On that occasion
he was advised by Lao Zi to
abandon his air of pride,
desire and arrogance for the
sake of self-preservation.
"Lao Zi practiced Dao
and De," continues Sima
Qian in his account, "and
hence his doctrine was aimed
at self-effacement and namelessness.
Having resided in the capital
for a long time and observed
the decline of the dynasty,
he resigned his office and
went away westward. Upon arrival
at Hanguguan Pass he was welcomed
by Guan Yi, who greeted him
with joy: "Write me a
book, as you are going to
become a recluse!" he
cried. It was there that Lao
Zi wrote a book in two parts
and composed of over 5000
words about the meaning of
Dao and De. Afterwards he
left and disappeared. No one
knows what became of him in
the end.... Lao Zi was a gentleman
recluse."[4]
Sima Qian, as a historian,
adopted an individual approach
intended to "convey what
is authentic and to record
what is doubtful." He
therefore preserved two pieces
of uncertain information:
"Some say that a certain
Lao Lai Zi was also a man
of the State of Chu who produced
a book in 15 chapters on the
usefulness of the Dao, and
seems to have lived at the
same time as Confucius,"
and "Some 129 years after
the death of Confucius the
histories record that the
historian Dao of the Zhou
Dynasty had an interview with
Duke Xian of Qin (384-362
B.C.).... Some say that this
Dao was in fact Lao Zi, while
others say he was not."[5]
Many scholars agree that the
opening and closing portions
of Lao Zi's biography are
fact, whereas the middle part
is unreliable. But there is
enough reliable evidence to
upset this argument.
First and foremost, the fact
that Confucius went to the
capital of the Eastern Zhou
Dynasty and asked Lao Zi about
the rites is reconfirmed in
the biography of Confucius
according to Sima Qian in
his Historical Records.[6]
It is recorded that Confucius
was seen off after the interview
and advised by Lao Zi to forget
himself (i.e. be selfless).
On his return to his own State
of Lu his immediate disciples
benefitted from what he had
learned from Lao Zi in the
realm of the rites of the
Zhou Dynasty. This is corroborated
in Zeng Zi's Questions on
the Rites (Zeng Zi Wen), a
chapter of The Book of Rites
(Li Ji), which is known as
one of the Confucianist `Five
Classics' (Wu Jing). It is
therein stated that Confucius
told his student Zeng Zi (505-436
B.C.) about how to conduct
certain rites properly as
guided by Lao Dao (i.e. Lao
Zi, whose name is repeated
in the passage as many as
seven times). Moreover, in
his book (i.e. The Complete
Works of Zhuang Zi), Zhuang
Zi (who is known in Western
literature as Chuang Tzu,
c. 369-286 B.C.) describes
Lao Zi and cites his sayings
16 times, half of which concern
the relationship between Lao
Zi and Confucius. The similar
view that Confucius learned
about the rites from Lao Dao
can also be found in the Dang
Ran Chapter of the Lu Shi
Chun Qiu edited by Lu Buwei
(?-235 B.C.), and in the brick
carvings of Confucius' life
as displayed in the Confucian
Temple (Kong Miao) located
in his hometown of Qufu in
modern Shandong Province.
It is worthy of notice that
Confucius was influenced by
Lao Zi to a certain extent.
Some of Lao Zi's ideas can
be found in the Analects of
Confucius (Lun Yu), for example,
"It was, perhaps, only
Emperor Shun (i.e. one of
the sage rulers extolled by
Confucius himself) who governed
peacefully without taking
any action against the natural
order" (Lun Yu, 15:5;
cf. Lao Zi's notion of "take-no-action"
or "nonaction,"
DDJ, Ch. 48.); "A gentleman
is to be grave and solemn
but not to be contentious
or competitive" (Ibid,
15:22; cf. Lao Zi's idea that
"the Dao of sage is to
act for others but not to
compete with them," DDJ,
Ch. 77.); "A benevolent
man is surely courageous"
(Ibid, 14:4; cf. Lao Zi's
assertion that "With
kindness one can become courageous,"
DDJ, Ch. 67.); and "What
do you think of repaying resentment
with virtue?" (Ibid,
14:34; cf. Lao Zi's proposed
solution to "return good
for evil," DDJ, Ch. 79.).
It is even more interesting
to point out that Confucius
himself claimed to be a transmitter
of the classics instead of
an originator. Furthermore,
he said, "I am so faithful
to and so fond of ancient
culture that privately I compare
myself to Lao Dao (i.e. Lao
Zi and Peng Zu (i.e. a legendary
figure)." (Ibid., 7:1)
Secondly, according to the
Historical Records,[7] when
con fronting something confusing,
Confucius would go to the
capita of Zhou for Lao Zi's
opinion; ...and to the State
of Chu for Lao Lai Zi's opinion;
... Thus it is self-evident
that Lao Zi and Lao Lai Zi
were two distinct figures
of Confucius' era. Hence it
is fanciful to assume that
they are the same person,
as some scholars have insisted.
Thirdly, it is a historical
fact that Confucius visited
Lao Z to clarify some of his
queries related to the rites
of the Zhou Dynasty as encountered
in his studies and teaching
practice. I was obviously
impossible for Confucius to
have consulted the historian
Dan, who was born many years
after Confucius' death So,
based on historical facts
and documentary evidence,
it can be safely affirmed
that Lao Zi was a native of
modern Luyi in Henar Province,
which was part of the State
of Chu in antiquity. His family
name was Li, his given name
Er and his style Dan. He was
an older contemporary of Confucius,
who once visited to ask about
the rites. The tradition that
he was the head of the national
library of the Zhou Dynasty
and that he was born about
20 to 30 years before Confucius
has been widely supported
by celebrates modern scholars,
including Guo Moruo, Ma Shulun,
Ren Jiyu Zhan Jianfeng, Gu
Di, Zhou Ying, Yan Lingfeng,
Tang Yijie Chen Guying, Ye
Lang and Min Ze. As a "gentleman
recluse' more than 2,500 years
ago, Lao Zi's birth and death
can not be pinpointed now,
as is often the case with
many ancient figures However,
Ren Jiyu inferred from his
historical research his assumption
that Lao Zi was born in approximately
580 B.C. (i.e the 6th year
of King Jian of the Zhou Dynasty)
and died in 500 B.C. (i.e.
the 20th year of King Jing
of the Zhou Dynasty)."
According to Zhan Jianfeng,
Lao Zi was probably born around
576 B.C. and died after 478
B.C.[9] These inferences are
supplied here for reference
only.
As to the Dao De Jing, there
are correspondingly distinct
opinions about its emergence
in view of its style and authorship.
Generally speaking, some believe
that it was written by Lao
Zi in the late stage of the
Spring and Autumn Period,
whereas others maintain that
it was compiled by the historian
Dao in the middle of the Warring
States Period; others go so
far as to assume that it was
based on quotations selected
from such classics as The
Book of Zhuang Zi, Lu Shi
Chun Qiu, The Book of Han
Fei Zi and The Book of Yi
Wen Zi. Recent research by
contemporary Lao Zi scholars
stresses the following points:
(1) The Dao De Jing possesses
an intrinsic structure and
rigorous logic of its own,
and therefore it is unlikely
that is is merely a compilation
of diverse sources. In addition,
most of the authors of the
abovementioned works acknowledge
their debt to Lao Zi. (2)
Lao Zi was not the historian
Dan, as the Dao De Jing is
a product of the late Spring
and Autumn Period, as testified
by its terminology and rhyming
system, even though a few
expressions used in it did
not come into being until
the Warring States Period
(e.g. "ten thousand chariots").
(3) The writing style of the
Dao De Jing as philosophical
discourse features a poetic
touch which corresponds to
that of the Book of Poetry
(Shi Jing), allegedly edited
by Confucius. The former is
thus considered to be a continuation
and development of the latter.[10]
Apart from that, its style
is quite similar to that of
The Art of War (Sun Zi Bing
Fa) written by Sun Zi in the
Spring and Autumn Period.
"If The Art of War is
affirmed to be written in
that period," as Zhang
Dainian states, "it is
not unreasonable to assume
that the Dao De Jing was produced
at the same time." [11]
In short, we conclude that
the Dao De Jing was completed
in the late Spring and Autumn
Period. Nevertheless, its
original text was slightly
different from what it looks
like today. That is owing
to certain modifications and
additions it underwent in
the course of its history,
during the Warring States
Period in particular. We must
keep in mind the fact that
it was originally written
on bamboo slips, which are
notorious for a tendency to
fall apart and be put back
in the wrong order by careless
readers. This position is
even more understandable when
we see with our own eyes the
minor changes in wording in
the two Mawangdui silk copies
of the Dao De Jing unearthed
from the same tomb and at
the same time in 1973.
We can notice also that copies
of Dao Yin exercises (ancient
appellation of Qigong) where
found in these Mawangdui tombs
next to Dao De Jing copies.
In addition Dao Yin is also
one main origin of Tai Chi
Chuan healing aspects, thus
again we can concluded that
DDJ and Tai Chi are inseparable
treasures that in ancient
China no one will even part
from during their ultimate
travel from life to death.
Notes:
[1] Chinese culture is renowned
for its long history, based
on the contributions made
by "one hundred schools"
of (bought and their leading
philosophers. The "one
hundred schools" can
be traced back to the centuries
before the Qin Dynasty (221-207
B.C.), and down to the early
Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D.
25). They were classified
by the historian Sima Tan
(?-110 B.C.) into six major
schools of thought, namely,
the Yin Yang Jia (Yin-Yang
School), Ru Jia (School of
Literati or Confucianist School),
Mo Jia (Mohist School or Mohism),
Ming Jia (School of Names
or Logicians), Fa Jia (Legalist
School) and Dao De Jia (Dao-De
School or Daoism) (Cf. Ch.
130 in Sima Qian's Historical
Records). In his treatise
Zhu Zi Lue (Introduction to
the Philosophers), Liu Xin
(c. 46 B.C.-A.D. 23) arranged
the "one hundred schools"
into ten main categories:
the Zong Heng Jia (School
of Diplomatists or Political
Strategists), Za Jia (School
of Eclectics Miscellaneous
School), Nong Jia (School
of Agrarians) and Xiao Shuo
Jia (School of Story Tellers),
apart from the six schools
above-mentioned. In my opinion,
t: Bing Jia (School of Military
Strategists) should be included
in Liu Xin's list, bringing
the number of schools to 11.
[2] The Shi Ji (The Historical
Records) by Sima Qian consists
of 130 chapters all together.
It is the first general history
of China, from remote antiquity
down to the reign of Emperor
Wu Di (140-87 B.C.) of the
Western Han Dynasty. It was
commenced by Sima Tan (?-110
B.C.) and completed by his
son Sima Qian (c.125-86 B.C.)
[3] Basically located in the
modern Luyi district of Henan
Province.
[4] Cf. Ch. 63, in the Shi
Ji.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Ibid., Ch. 47.
[7] Ibid., Ch. 67.
[8] Cf. Ren Jiyu. Zhong Guo
Zhe Xue Shi (A History of
Chinese Philosophy). Beijing:
People's Press, Vol. 1, 1990.
[9] Cf. Zhan Jianfeng. Lao
Zi Qi Ren Qi Shu Ji Qi Dao
Lun (On Lao Zi, His book and
His Doctrine of the Dao) Wuhan:
Hubei People's Press, 1982.
[10] Cf. Gu Di & Zhou
Ying. Lao Zi Tong (Complete
Studies of Lao Zi). Changchun:
Jilin People's Press, Vol.
2, 1991; Chen Guying. Lao
Zhuang Xin Lun (Nee Essays
on Lao Zi and Zhuang Zi).
Shanghai: Shanghai Classics
Press, 1992.
[11] Cf. Zhang Dainian. "Lao
Zi Zhe Xue Bian Wei"
(An Investigation of Lao Zi's
Philosophy), in Zhong Guo
Zhe Xue Shi Lun Wen Ji (Collected
Essays on the History of Chinese
Philosophy). Jinan: Shandong
People's Press, Vol. 1, 1979.